The Meaning of Life through Subjectivity

The Meaning of Life through Subjectivity Humans are subjective because despite trying to stop affecting world that they are a part of, they are changing it. This relationship, which causes a change in the world through action, changes any objective view into a subjective one because they are influencing what a pure observer cannot. By trying to simply stop doing and merely observe, people attempt to reach a state of pure objectivity. This, however, becomes an impossible task once one considers that their mere existence is an act in and of itself. Meaning that the only way to become truly objective is to temporarily stop existing, observe purely in that non-existent state, and then resume existing within the world as a human being. To be able to even consider performing these impossible tasks is akin to being God. In total, it is impossible for a human being to achieve a state of non existence simply because the mere act of living causes one to become subjective due to the fact they have an influence on the world around them . While they are young, humans eventually reach a point when they become aware that their existences are enveloped in exclusivity. They see that their lives are filled with choices, forks in the road which make it apparent that whenever one chooses something, something else must be excluded. These choices can bring the pain of having to weigh between the options and the respective consequences, as well as coming to terms with the idea that one cannot have everything. Considering the human limitation of having to exclude one thing in order to gain another, people will always reach for a level of objectivity in their choices; they want to remove some of the pain and difficulty that they feel from having to make those choices by detaching themselves emotionally from the choices they have to make. Despite the truth of existence lying in subjectivity, there is a paradox shown here; that humans are almost preset to reach for objectivity despite the answer existing in the other direction: bey ond subjectivity. To reach the answer of life, one must first come to terms with the truth of existence. Kierkegaards existential truth is subjectivity; for a human to understand that subjectivity is the core of existence then enables them to pursue and eventually understand the answer to life. Subjectivity in itself is important to grasp as a human, and as a result, it also serves as a differentiation between the simple man and the wise man. If the wise man is being subjective, he knows that there is a difference between subjectivity and objectivity. However, the only indication that he is being completely subjective at a given point is that he objectively knows the difference between objectivity and subjectivity. This understanding allows him to grasp the concept of the answer to life while at the same time brings up the paradox of only being subjective when being objective. In contrast, if the simple man is being subjective, he is simply being subjective by point of impulse and would not be aware o f it. Thus the simple man cannot be considered to have reached the same existential truth as the wise man. To be wise is a curse as well as a blessing, for the paradox teaches him the importance of the existential truth, while at the same time, prevents him from reaching it. Given Kierkegaards belief that the existential truth is subjectivity, that all humans eventually become at least slightly objective and that people need to be slightly objective in order to be subjective, then a paradox presents itself. If a human cannot be subjective without being objective then this begs the question about whether or not a human reach a state of pure subjectivity. Within the World-Historical view, there is but a single objective truth to any individual event throughout history, but subjectivity shows a different, individual truth for every person viewing it. Seeing that people cannot objectively observe and think over the past (without first accomplishing the impossible task of becoming God-like), people are left to view the events themselves from the present, filling in the gaps between objective facts with subjective interpretations. These all compile to subjective truths; each being the truth, yet none being any more or less valid than the last. By being human, one is restricted by the world they have subjectively constructed; a world made with the subjective truths influenced by their own thoughts, feelings and experiences. However, as partially subjective existences in what can only be perceived as a purely subjective world, one must ask if human beings can really exist in the same world as anyone else and if the answer to that query chan ges the answer to life itself. This presents us with the final paradox; that in order to obtain the answer one must be an objective and static entity, but humans as a whole are subjective simply through existence. Were one to find the so-called answer to life, ones life would fundamentally change. However, as a direct result of finding that answer, this newly changed life is basically a new life in and of itself. This new life is at least slightly different from the old life and, as a result, has a new subjective truth to it. This effectively renders the previous answer worthless, perhaps having never existed to begin with. This in itself proves that the answer cannot be found in the constantly active life, but only in the static death where the constant, static world is unaffected by a person. Despite this, the answer holds no meaning after death and cannot be communicated to the living resulting in the same lack of truth. As a result, Ive found that Im unable to submit my answer to this lifelong assignment, and that to do so I would have to no longer be considered alive. I apologize and would like to request an extension; preferably to sometime in the late 2070s.

General Essay on Chinese Religions Essay

Early Chinese religion belongs to the mythical and prehistoric period. Tradition speaks of the origins of Chinese culture lying in the 3rd millennium BCE with the Hsia dynasty. As of yet no historical evidence has been found for such a dynasty; all references to it are mythical. It is only with the Shang dynasty, which is traditionally dated from 1766 to 1122 BCE, that we find evidence of a developing culture and religious practices. The religion of the Shang was principally characterised by the use of oracle bones for divination and the development of the cult of ancestors. It was believed that the cracks that resulted from burning ox bones or tortoise shells represented messages sent from the gods about a variety of matters such as illness, the weather or hunting. Belief in deities and the practice of the worship of ancestors has persisted in Chinese life, and has come to form the basis of what has broadly been termed popular religion. Popular religion in fact represents a mixture of early religion and elements of the three great religions: Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism. At the heart of popular religion is the worship of deities and veneration of ancestors at shrines in the home or temples. There are many deities associated with this form of religion, but the best known are Shang Ti, the supreme ruler of heaven, and Kuan Yin, the goddess of mercy and protector of women and children. In the Chou dynasty a more structured form of religion developed. This is associated with the teaching of Kung-Fu Tzu (551-479 BCE), whose Latinised name is Confucius. Confucius sought to establish a socio-political ethical system, with theological beliefs concerned with human destiny and the conduct of human relationships in society, based on a belief in the goodness of human nature. He believed in a providential Heaven (T’ien) and in prayer which encouraged him in his mission. He emphasised the five relationships – namely, Father-Son; Ruler-Subject; Husband-Wife; eldest son to brothers; friend and friend – to be expressed by ‘li’ (correct ceremony) to bring ‘he’ (harmony). Such relationships were rooted in family piety which came to give a prominent place to Ancestor Worship and to respect for deified men, which came to find expression in the Sacrifices of the State religion. The Confucian canon can be divided into two parts: the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics were handed down from earlier times and emphasised by Confucius. These are the Book of Odes; the Book of History; the Book of Rites; the Book of Divination; and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Four Books consist of The Analects (Conversations of Confucius); the Doctrine of the Mean; The Great Learning; and the Book of Mencius. Out of the teachings of Confucius emerged various schools associated with a master. Notable was the work of Meng-Tzu (c. 371-c. 289 BCE) and Hsun-Tzu (300-230 BCE). Meng-Tzu and Hsun-Tzu formed rival schools whose doctrinal differences were based in a fundamentally different conception of human nature. Meng-Tzu taught that people were fundamentally good and that what made them bad was their environment. Consequently, Meng-Tzu emphasised the importance of education as a means for bringing out the innate goodness of people. By way of contrast, Hsun-Tzu had a more pessimistic view of human nature. Hsun-Tzu taught that people were inherently evil, and that they could only be taught to be good through training. He also was religiously sceptical, teaching that religious ritual had no purpose except to provide moral training. It was this negative attitude towards religion that was one of the main factors behind the subsequent rejection of the teachings of Hsun-Tzu by mainstream Confucianism and the establishment of Meng-Tzu’s teachings as orthodox. At the same time that Confucianism was developing, two rival schools were active in China: the Mohists and the Legalists. Mohism was founded by Mo Tzu (c. 470-390 BCE). Mo Tzu advocated universal love and opposed the elaborate and expensive rituals that defined Chinese religious life. This put him at odds with Confucianism in that Confucianism advocated particular love for one’s parents as well as the importance of ritual for interpersonal relations. Although during the 4th century Mohism was strong enough to rival Confucianism, it went into decline in the 3rd century, and by the time of the unification of China in 221 had virtually disappeared. It is unclear why the tradition declined so quickly. Legalism is more of a political philosophy than a religion. The various strands of legalist doctrine were systematised by Han Fei Tzu (d. 233 BCE). Han Fei Tzu had been taught by Hsun Tzu and adopted his pessimistic attitude to human nature. Unlike Hsun Tzu, Han Fei Tzu did not believe that people could be reformed, advocating instead a strong, even ruthless, form of government that could control human behaviour. Legalist principles were put into effect by the Chin dynasty, which unified China in 221 BCE, and was subsequently overthrown in 207 BCE. The brief rule of the Ch’in had a devastating impact on Confucianism, whose scholars it persecuted and whose books it destroyed. Fortunately for the tradition, Confucianism received official acceptance of the Han dynasty and flourished during the Han period. Under the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220CE), the T’ang dynasty (618-907 CE), and the Sung dynasty (960-1127CE) Confucian teaching was used for public examinations. In 631 CE the Confucian canon was made the sole subject for the examination of aspirants to official positions, so Confucianism came to be known as â€Å"Ju-chiao†, â€Å"the Doctrine of the learned†. During the Sung dynasty (960-1126 CE) Neo-Confucianism emerged as a distinct movement in response to Taoism and Buddhism. Two traditions of Neo-Confucian thought emerged: the School of Principle, represented by Chu Hsi (1130-1200), and the School of Mind, represented by Lu Chiu Yuan (1139-1193) and, later, Wang Yang Ming (1472-1529). Chu Hsi sought to provide a metaphysical explanation of the nature of reality as well as an ethic for human conduct. For Chu Hsi the basis of all reality was the Supreme Ultimate (T’ai Chi). In order for people to live properly they had to purify their ch’i (vital energy) through taming their desires so that they could be united with the Supreme Ultimate. In reaction to Chu Hsi’s dualistic perception of reality Lu Chiu Yuan presented a monistic picture of the universe. He claimed that the universe and the mind are one. Therefore, through understanding one’s own mind one could understand the nature of the cosmos. This was developed by Wang Yang-ming. Wang Yang-ming believed that individuals could perfect themselves through moral self-cultivation. This involved returning to an original mind whose principal quality was love (jen). Also of ancient origin is Taoism – whose classic text, the Tao Te Ching, is attributed to a supposed contemporary of Confucius (551-479), Lao Tzu. This text has had many interpreters whose works have developed in various sects, some of which have been very influential. There are two streams of Taoism: Religious Taoism, which is represented by the many sects concerned with the quest for immortality, and Philosophical Taoism, which was concerned to explain the human condition. The major imported religion is Mahayana Buddhism which is believed to have entered China in the 1st century BCE. An important early Buddhist teacher was An Shih Kao who founded what came to be known as the Dhyana School, characterised by its emphasis on meditation. Another major early school was the Prajna school whose doctrines were based on the interpretation of the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajnaparamita). It was, however, between the 5th and 8th centuries that Buddhist schools flourished and developed in China. Schools that were active at this time were: San-Lun, Ch’ing-tu, Ti’en-t’ai, Ch’an, Chu-she, Hua-yen, Lu, San-chieh, Fa-hsiang and Chen-yen. The great persecution of Buddhism in the middle of the 9th century led to its rapid decline, and by the time of the Sung dynasty only the Ch’an and Ch’ing-tu schools remained significant. Incursions from the West began at an early date, mainly in regard to trade and commerce from Arabia and India, probably to Canton or Hangchow. Infiltration of a different kind took place under the Mongols (1260-1368), when the armies of Ghengis Khan spread westwards over countries occupied by the Muslims. The records of the Yuan dynasty indicate that many distinguished officials (both military and civil) were Muslims, bringing with them knowledge of Arabic science known to Kublai Khan and the use of catapults in siege warfare. In Ming times Arabic books on science came into the Imperial library. After the Mongol period, no great influx of Muslims took place, but they spread into most provinces of China, especially in the north-west and west (the provinces of Kansu, Szechwan and Yunnan) and in the north-east (in Manchuria and Hipei). They mainly live in their own communities in their mosques and schools. Their first mosque appears to have been built in Sian in 742. Another group attracted by commerce were the Jews who traded across Central Asia, during the T’ang dynasty (618-907), whose communities have mainly been along the sea board in cities such as Shanghai and Canton. The earliest evidence we have of a Jewish community in China derives from a letter written in the 8th century by a Jewish merchant I China. By the 9th century there was a distinct Jewish community in Kaifung, its continued presence evidenced by the construction of a synagogue in the city in 1163. From the 15th century onwards the Jews became increasingly integrated into Chinese life to the extent that by the 19th century the community had all but lost its distinctive identity. As a result of the western colonialism of China in the 19th century and the establishment of new trading contacts with Europe Jews settled in some of the major cities of China. Christianity came to China first by the way of Nestorian Christians, after the arrival of A-Lo-Pen in 781 where it flourished for two centuries (by favour of the imperial court) until the reign of Wu Tsung who closed the monasteries and persecuted the church. It flourished again under Mongol rule in the 13th century, and in 1289 Kublai Khan established an office for the supervision of Christians. At about this time the Roman Catholic Church came to the Mongol empire, when a Franciscan monk came to the Khan’s court of Kharatorui in 1246. Shortly after that St Louis of France sent an embassy, followed by Marco Polo in 1275; a request from Kublai Khan for a hundred teachers did not, however, bear fruit apart from a small Franciscan mission led by John of Monterovino, who was appointed Archbishop in Cantilec in 1289, and under him three bishops were appointed. Then in the 16th century the Society of Jesus became very active in China inspired by the work of Francis Xavier who had preached in India and Japan. Matteo Ricci came to Canton in 1610 and then to Peking, where he founded a Christian community and gained prominence as an outstanding astronomer. From that time the Roman Catholic Church has continued despite periods of persecution. Protestant missions date from 1807 with W. Morrison’s arrival in Canton for the London Missionary Society. Other missions soon followed – with the Presbyterians in 1847, the Anglicans in 1849 and the Methodists in 1850. Also prominent have been the China Inland Mission, under Hudson Taylor – an interdenominational missionary society. In the twentieth century house churches have been prominent, often associated with such evangelists as Watchman Key. These Protestant activists have contributed greatly to educational and medical developments as well as political and social influences from the West; these were often backed by military force and, therefore, deeply resented. Recent changes under Communist influence, led by Mao, have been profound, strengthening agnostic tendencies for many in the population. Traditional religious practices are still continued in many homes in China and among overseas Chinese. In recent times relaxation of restriction has given fresh opportunity for religious activity. Many Taoist and Buddhist temples, as well as mosques and churches, are being renovated and reopened. Greater openness to the West has been accompanied by renewed conversion to Christianity; the demise of communism has encouraged the rediscovery of traditional religious values. Taiwan has provided an important haven for traditional Chinese religions, as well as the establishment of new religions, since the Nationalist government established itself on the island in 1949. A number of syncretic movements such as San-I-Chiao (â€Å"Three in One Religion†), were suppressed in China following the Communist victory, but have found a haven in Taiwan. Other interesting traditions that have been transplanted to Taiwan are those which are collectively designated the Hsien T’ien Tao (â€Å"Way of Former Heaven sects†). Five of the best known of these are the I-kuan Tao, the T’ung shan She, the T’ien-te Shang-chiao, the the Tao-yuan, and the Tz’u-hui T’ang. These are characterised by a belief in a creator deity (usually a cosmic Mother figure) from whom humanity has strayed. These sects also claim to transcend all other religions and, therefore, provide a way by which all these religions can be united. All but one (the T’zu-hui T’ang) were founded in mailand China, later moving to Taiwan. The T’zu-hui T’ang was itself founded in Taiwn in 1949. Also originating from the mainland are the spirit-writing cults. These are cults which derive religious beliefs and practices from a deity mediating through an entranced medium. The practice of spirit writing has been a part of Chinese life probably since the T’ang dynasty (618-907). In the 19th century a spirit-writing movement developed in China and entered Taiwan in the same century. This continues to be part of the Taiwanese religious landscape to the present day. There are, of course, a number of recently emerged distinctively Taiwanese movements. Xuan Yuan Jiao (â€Å"Religion of the Yellow Emperor†) was founded in Taiwan in 1957. Xuan Yuan Jiao represents the attempt to recapture the spirit of pre-Han Chinese religion through incorporating Taoist, Confucianist and Mohist teachings and interpreting these as emanating from a tradition that derives from the Yellow Emperor. The religion is highly political in character since its purpose is to revive China’s national spirit following the â€Å"loss† of the mainland to communism. Buddhism continues to flourish in Taiwan. Following the Communist victory in mainland China in 1949 a further wave of Buddhist monks arrived in Taiwan from the mainland. This has strengthened the presence of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism in the island and influenced the character of earlier traditions. Since 1950 the Buddhist Association of the Republic of China has been the focal point of Taiwanese Buddhism. This is responsible for ordination ceremonies for Buddhist monks, nuns and lay people. In more recent years Taiwanese Buddhism has adopted a more missionary approach both within Taiwan and abroad, particularly in North America. In the 1960s two important Buddhist organizations emerged: the Tzu Chi Compassion Relief Foundation and Fo Kuang Shan. The first of these was founded in 1966 by a self-ordained nun named Cheng-yen. This organization has sought to introduce a strong degree of social concern into Taiwanese Buddhism. Fo Kuang Shan’s origins can be dated to 1967 when when a Chinese monk, the Ven. Hsing-yun, opened a temple at Fo Kuang Shan in Southern Taiwan. Like the Tzu Chi Compassion Relief Foundation, Fo Kuang Shan emphasizes social action as a means to promote Buddhist values. More recently, Ling Jiao Shan in the north of Taiwan has become a centre of Buddhist activity. Founded by Master Hsin Tao, Ling Jiao Shan has acquired prominence within Taiwan and beyond on account of its establishment of a museum of world religions with branches in Taiwan and the United States.

Othello the Manipulator Essay

Shakespeare’s Othello: Iago, the Master Manipulator William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Othello† is a play consumed with deception, jealousy, and revenge, mainly caused by a powerful â€Å"villain† named Iago (1. 1. 28). Although Iago presents himself as everyone’s honest friend, he is always trying to manipulate and deceive them, as shown in his words â€Å"Whip me such honest knaves† (1. 1. 50). This heartless character even manipulates everyone around him including his companions Cassio, Rodrigo, and the Moor, Othello intending to gain power. His actions create a massive amount of jealousy and rage. All of this revenge and manipulation first forms when Cassio is chosen for the position as Othello’s Lieutenant, a job which Iago wanted desperately. This sends Iago into a rage motivated by his hunger for power. His revenge towards Cassio first begins at a celebration when Iago pressures him into having one drink after another knowing Cassio has a low tolerance with alcohol. Under pressure, Cassio argues, â€Å"Not tonight, good Iago: I have very poor and unhappy brains for drinking: I could well wish courtesy would invent some other custom of entertainment† (2. . 1164-1167). Iago’s perfects his manipulation by taking advantage of other’s weaknesses. Iago manipulates both Cassio and Rodrigo into fighting each other which results in Othello taking away Cassio’s title as Lieutenant. Using Cassio’s statement, †She’s a most exquisite lady† Iago is able to use this to conjure a second mastermind plan to have Cassio’s rep utation ruined by convincing Othello that Cassio and Desdemona are having an affair (2. 2. 1152). Although Iago seeks revenge from Cassio for gaining Iago’s desired position as Lieutenant, his main interest of destruction is the Moor Othello, which is the masterpiece of Iago’s many manipulative plots. Iago uses Othello’s beloved wife, Desdemona, to take advantage of Othello’s weakness. Iago implies, â€Å"Cassio my lord? No, sure, I cannot think it; That he would steal away so guilty-like, Seeing your coming† (3. 3. 1668-70). Iago’s coy assumption of Cassio overcomes Othello, making Othello think Iago is an honest friend he can trust. This gained trust makes Iago’s plans of destruction much easier to accomplish. Iago, also, makes Othello overhear a conversation between Iago and Cassio, which he believes he is about Desdemona, when in fact their conversation is about Cassio’s prostitute Bianca. As the two men laugh and tell sexual stories, Othello goes into a jealous rage, at the thought of Cassio having these relations with Desdemona. Iago multiplies Othello’s rage as he talks about the situation, â€Å"Did you perceive how he laughed at his vice? † (4. . 2602). He convinces Emilia to take Desdemona’s handkerchief, which was Othello’s first significant gift to her. Iago sets the situation up so that the sacred handkerchief will be found in Cassio’s room, and later is given to Cassio by Bianca in front of Othello. As Iago pumps more deceitful lies of Cassio and Desdemona’s affair into Othello’s head, Iago says, â€Å"And did you see the handkerchief? à ¢â‚¬ ¦and to see how he prizes the foolish woman your wife! She gave it him, and he hath given it his whore† (4. 1. 2604-08). Othello, having seen this will have all the evidence he needs to suspect Cassio of the affair. Iago then manipulates Othello into killing his loyal wife by suggesting, â€Å"Do it not with poison, strangle her in her bed, even the bed she hath contaminated† (4. 2. 2638-39). Iago’s over whelming hunger for power is also shown though his best companion, Rodrigo, whom is also in love with Desdemona. Discovering that Desdemona and Othello are married, frantic Rodrigo confides in Iago and asks, â€Å"What should I do? I confess it is my shame to be so fond; but it is not in my virtue to amend it† (1. . 673-676). As a master of deception, Iago proves to Rodrigo that Desdemona’s heart will be easily won by his lavish expensive gifts. With Rodrigo’s excessive amount of savings, Iago purchases these gifts that are intentionally for Desdemona and sells them for his profit. Secondly, Iago convinces Rodrigo into thinking that Cassio and Emilia are having an aff air. Iago manipulates Rodrigo into fighting Cassio at the celebration. Iago persuades Rodrigo by saying,Watch you to-night; for the command, I’ll lay’t upon you. Cassio knows you not. I’ll not be far from you: do you find some occasion to anger Cassio, either by speaking too loud, or tainting his discipline; or from what other course you please, which the time shall more favorable minister (2. 1. 1064-70) In conclusion, Iago’s deception and manipulation plan to gain power completely fails as everything falls to pieces. When Iago’s wife, Emilia, reveals Desdemona’s loyalty to Othello and all of Iago’s lies, it is far too late. After Othello murders his wife, he finds out all of Iago’s â€Å"honest words† were all lies and catches Iago in the act. In the final scene, Iago says, â€Å"Demand me nothing: what you know, you know: from this time forth I never will speak word† (5. 2. 3665-66). In the end, Iago manipulated everyone around him so he could gain personal power. However, his selfish goal of power is never reached and nothing is gained from Iago’s manipulative actions. Iago’s excessive lies and actions show that he is the main cause for so many problems containing deception, jealousy, rage, and revenge. Work Cited Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice. The NortonShakespeare: Tragedies. 2nd ed. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt. New York: W. W. Norton, 2008, 425-507.

Idioms Denoting Parts of Body - 6990 Words

Contents 1. Introduction 2.1. Aim * Idiomatic Phrases * What is an idiom? * Idioms and culture * Different aspects of an idiom * Idioms pragmatics and context 2.2. Practical Value * When we use idioms? * Idioms with a body part component 1. Body idioms connected with senses 2. Body idioms connected with limbs and limbs’ elements 3. Other body parts idioms 2. Calculation 3. Some Examples 4. Reference 1. Introduction It is common knowledge that one of the most important functions of language is to name the world or express human thoughts through a system of concepts. They exist in association in language and make up a giant network with many interconnection and†¦show more content†¦A large number of phrases and sentences in the English language are related to body parts. Some of them are descriptive while others, elusive. Their origins are dated from Biblical times to the recent days. Each generation adds new idiomatic expressions which are connected with their culture. The meaning of idiomatic expressions is indefinable. They show that metaphors are very important in our lives and that we do not look at things in the way they are in reality, but rather we perceive them through our understanding and our experience of the world. The present thesis is an attempt at an analysis of English idioms with a body component. Its goal is to study and present the nature of idioms, their connection with culture and context. It is common knowledge that one of the most important functions of language is to name the world or express human thoughts through a system of concepts. They exist in association in language and make up a giant network with many interconnection and association among the various subparts. A good example of this interconnection involves metaphor. Metaphor is used in the literary or poetic language. It is also widely used in every day conversational language. 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